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by Pensoft Publishersa Often introduced unintentionally by human activities, invasive alien species can outcompete and overwhelm native flora and fauna, driving species to the brink of extinction and disrupting the balance of ecosystems. Understanding why exactly they establish in new locations and how they got there in the first place is crucial if we are to mitigate their destructive effects. Unfortunately, there isn’t enough research on this, and the answers might not always be straightforward.
A research team from AgResearch and Better Border Biosecurity (B3) investigated the biological risk posed by soil on the external surfaces of sea freight such as shipping containers or used machinery at sea ports in New Zealand. With their work, the researchers hope to facilitate the assessment of relative biosecurity risks between different introduction pathways and contribute to the development of more efficient measures against them.
The team found soil on most types of sea freight, irrespective of origin, with all soil likely to vector microbes, including plant pathogens. The amount of soil recovered from a single sea container was 5.3 kg, while the overall mean weight collected from sea freight was 417g, with most of the soil found on the underside of sea freight.
“While the presence of soil is perhaps not surprising, the presence of live bacteria, fungi, worms, seeds and insects associated with the soil was of greater concern. Various regulated biosecurity organisms were recovered from the samples, including plant-parasitic worms, seeds, insects and spiders that were not recorded as being present in New Zealand,” says Mark McNeill of AgResearch, who led the study.
“Not only does the spread of exotic species through these networks represent significant environmental, economic and social costs to natural and agricultural environments if invasive alien species were to establish, a loss of biodiversity is also an expected consequence of invasive alien species establishment.”
“For islands, the implications can be significant, as they have high levels of endemism and invasive alien species establishment can lead to extinction of species as well as biodiversity declines,” the researchers write in their paper, which was published in NeoBiota.
Compared to a previous study on contaminated footwear carried in luggage by international airline passengers, the number and diversity in soil on sea freight was smaller than soil transported in more protected environments (e.g., footwear in luggage).
This showed that biosecurity risk can vary with pathway. However, prioritizing one soil pathway over another according to the risks they present, and differentially allocating resources is problematic, because the relative risk is dynamic, dictated by factors such as new pests or diseases entering the respective pathways.
Even so, the researchers suggest that contaminated sea freight is an important introduction pathway for exotic species. The establishment of such species can be prevented by cleaning containers prior to departure, inspection at the border, and further cleaning where required.
The western U.S. is home to two known native species of subterranean termites, Reticulitermes hesperus (shown here) and Reticulitermes tibialis. But a new analysis shows R. hesperus is likely a species complex of at least two distinct species, and at least five species Reticulitermes in all may be present in California. A better understanding of these separate subterranean termite species and their behaviors will be essential for effective management. (Photo by James Bailey via iNaturalist, CC BY-NC 4.0)
By Andrew Porterfield
Andrew Porterfield
Subterranean termites in the genus Reticulitermes are common pests in North America, responsible for significant damage to wooden structures. The scientific literature maintains that the western United States is home to two native species of termites: Reticulitermes hesperus in more coastal regions from British Columbia to Southern California, and Reticulitermes tibialis in more arid inland regions.
However, researchers at the University of California, Riverside, the U.S. Forest Service, and the University of California Cooperative Extension have found evidence of additional Reticulitermes species in the western U.S. Using a series of techniques including cuticular hydrocarbon profiles (CHC), behavior studies (including reproductive flight/swarm timing), and DNA sequencing, the researchers found that Reticulitermes hesperus is in fact one species in a complex of multiple reproductively isolated species and that as many as five species of Reticulitermes may exist in California alone. None of these species in California was identified as R. tibialis. The researchers report their findings in a new study published in October in the Journal of Economic Entomology.
Determining speciation and genetic diversification among termites that recycle wood in natural environments is important to understand their ecology and diversity, as well as to better understand the behavior of more destructive termites and to find more efficient and less environmentally harmful ways of controlling them.
Chow-Yang Lee, Ph.D., professor and endowed presidential chair in urban entomology at UC Riverside, coordinated a team of research scientists and technicians who collected termites from residential sites and field locations in northern and southern California and in Arizona, Nevada, Utah, and New Mexico. Alates (the termites’ winged, swarming, reproductive stage) were captured during their spring, fall, and winter flights. Workers and soldiers in foraging groups were collected in conjunction with studies on taxonomy, foraging behavior, and control of termite colonies with baits. They used a number of techniques to separate the termite species:
Cuticular hydrocarbon profiles. Insect species have a distinct mixture of wax components on the outside of their exoskeleton, or cuticle, consisting of combinations of hydrocarbons, fatty acids, alcohols, waxes, glycerides, phospholipids, and glycolipids. Focusing only on the hydrocarbon components, unique chemical “fingerprints” were discovered by chemical analyses using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. Separation of groups, or phenotypes, by their chemical fingerprints was confirmed by studies of agonistic or aggressive behavior, correlation of mating flights of two phenotypes, and genetics using one mitochondrial DNA gene.
DNA extraction and sequencing of mitochondrial DNA. Focusing these techniques on cytochrome oxidase II and 16s ribosomal RNA genes and two relatively conserved stretches of DNA that are routinely used to differentiate species provided a powerful examination of the previously identified species using characterization of cuticular hydrocarbon mixtures. Sequences were compared to existing termite DNA sequences on file with GenBank, one of the world’s largest genetic databases.
Mating flights and swarming patterns. These behaviors were compared between termite species identified by cuticular hydrocarbon profiles and genetic groupings.
A new study finds that the termite Reticulitermes hesperus is likely a species complex of at least two distinct species, and at least five species Reticulitermes in all may be present in California. The study, published in October in the Journal of Economic Entomology, was conducted by a group of six researchers: Top row, left to right: Shu-Ping Tseng, Ph.D., University of California, Riverside; Andrew Sutherland, Ph.D., BCE, UC Cooperative Extension; and Michael Haverty, Ph.D., U.S. Forest Service. Bottom row, left to right: Chow-Yang Lee, Ph.D., UC, Riverside; Casey Hubble, UC Cooperative Extension, and Lori Nelson, U.S. Forest Service. (Photos courtesy of Chow-Yang Lee, Ph.D.)
The researchers determined that colonies that produce alates (swarmers) in the spring were R. hesperus, and colonies that produce alates in the fall and winter represent a different, undescribed species, based on differences in chemical characteristics and genetics. These results strongly indicated reproductive isolation between separate species. In addition to these two species, chemical and genetic evidence showed the possibility of at least three more undescribed species in California. The two to three species were identified as sympatric (i.e., genetically distinct, reproductively isolated, and living in the same area) in several areas of California.
The combination of chemical and genetic identification techniques has become important for identifying and differentiating Reticulitermes species, the researchers say. Morphological examination has not been reliable for identifications, largely due to vague or inadequate species descriptions, wide variations in size and shape of the castes (workers, soldiers, and alates) in termite colonies, and the challenges involved in collecting specimens of soldiers and alates in the same sample. Even genetic sequencing data alone had its issues—the team found many Reticulitermes genetic specimens entered into GenBank were misidentified.
“Several, but not all, of the species of Reticulitermes are known to damage wooden structures, but their natural habitat and behavior remained poorly understood,” the researchers write in an email interview. This poor understanding has created challenges to termite management efforts, especially with methods utilizing behavioral traits.
“Historically, controlling termites involved using highly toxic, long-lasting pesticides applied to the soil around buildings without detailed knowledge of termite biology,” the researchers say. “With the introduction of slow-acting termite baits, a deeper understanding of termite species, colony size, foraging territory, and seasonal foraging activity become crucial. Identifying the local termite species and understanding their seasonal behaviors become essential for effective subterranean termite management.”
And, the research is just beginning. “Our understanding of the diversity and ecological roles of subterranean termites in California, especially in proximity to wooden structures, is still in its early stages,” they say.
Andrew Porterfield is a writer, editor, and communications consultant for academic institutions, companies, and nonprofits in the life sciences. He is based in Camarillo, California. Follow him on Twitter at @AMPorterfield or visit his Facebook page.
The Department of Industry, Tourism and Trade has increased plant surveillance after a confirmed sample of the papaya mealybug was found in the Darwin region.
The suspected Paracoccus marginatus was discovered after the Plant Biosecurity team received a call from a concerned resident in Parap last week, who identified a cluster of white coloured insects on their papaya plants.
There are many species of mealybug including a native Australian species which can appear to be similar in appearance. To confirm whether the retrieved sample was Paracoccus marginatus, the insects were subject to further testing, which subsequently came back positive this week.
Additional surveillance has since identified infestations at residential properties in Parap, the Narrows and Winnellie.
The papaya mealybug appears as a cluster of white ‘cotton-like’ mass, usually found on the fruit or underside of the leaves of affected plants.
Although the papaya mealybug does not pose a threat to humans or animals, affected plants may appear deformed, wilted and the papaya fruit likely to remain hard and bitter, with the papaya, hibiscus and frangipani species particularly susceptible.
Surveillance and testing has been ramped up across the Top End. The Plant Biosecurity team will continue surveillance activities and the public is requested to not move suspected infected plants, plant cutting or fruit from their gardens.
The team will work closely with residents and industry during the surveillance period.
Residents of the Darwin region are advised to check plants on their properties and report anything unusual to the Exotic Plant Pest Hotline on 1800 084 881.
During this time, the public are requested to not take cuttings from plants such as hibiscus, frangipani and papaya and to refrain from purchasing plants from uncertified sources.
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This month’s pest alerts include the first report of Cucurbit aphid-borne yellows virus infecting muskmelon (Cucumis melo) in India.
We’ve selected a few of the latest new geographic, host and species records for plant pests and diseases from CAB Abstracts. Records this month include the first report of root rot on onion seedlings caused by Globisporangium irregulare in South Korea, and the first report of Cucurbit aphid-borne yellows virus infecting muskmelon (Cucumis melo) in India.
To view all search results for new geographic, host and species records for plant pests and diseases, click here or to view results by your location click here.
If there’s another new record you’d like to highlight, please post a comment.
EPPO Reporting Service no. 11 – 2022Num. article: 2022/244
First record of sweet potato chlorotic stunt virus in the Netherlands
The NPPO of the Netherlands recently informed the EPPO Secretariat of the first finding ofsweet potato chlorotic stunt virus (Crinivirus, SPCSV – EU Annexes) in sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) plants on its territory. SPCSV was found in September 2022 in two open fields in Noord-Brabant province (11.83 and 4.72 ha) and one in Limburg province (0.5 ha). The official survey was part of the Euphresco project ‘Phytosanitary risks of newly introduced crops’ (PRONC). Tracing back investigations to the origin of the finding showed that the sweet potato slips used for planting originated from a company in another EU Member State. Sweet potato is a new crop in the Netherlands. During the survey, plants with and without virus symptoms were sampled and tested. SPCSV was identified in several plants with virus-like symptoms (e.g. vein banding, discoloration, rings, dots). Additionally, in several of these symptomatic plants a second, non-EU listed, virus was identified: sweet potato virus G (Potyvirus, SPVG00). The mixed infection may have increased the severity of the observed symptoms.
Official phytosanitary measures have been taken. The companies have to report to the NPPO when all tubers of the Ipomoea batatas plants have been harvested and the total quantity thereof. All infected lots should be stored in a traceable manner, separately from other harvested lots. Only sales for consumption/industry are allowed, otherwise the lots have to be destroyed. The companies should report when the infected lots are sold or destroyed. The lots must be sold/destroyed before 31 March 2023.
The pest status of sweet potato chlorotic stuntvirus in the Netherlands is officially declared as: Transient, actionable, under eradication.
This month’s pest alerts include the isolation and identification of the top blight pathogen of Passiflora edulis (photograph by Earth100).
We’ve selected a few of the latest new geographic, host and species records for plant pests and diseases from CAB Abstracts. Records this month include information about a new virus disease of sunflower from Nebraska and the isolation and identification of the top blight pathogen of Passiflora edulis.
To view all search results for new geographic, host and species records for plant pests and diseases, click here or to view results by your location click here.
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In Southern California, state agriculture officials are expanding a citrus plant quarantine in Los Angeles county after the citrus disease Huanglongbing (HLB) was detected in Pomona.
The plant disease is not harmful to people or animals but can greatly affect citrus plants. HLB is spread from plant to plant by the Asian citrus psyllid. Once a tree is infected it cannot be cured.
According to the Citrus Pest & Disease program’s press release, a citrus plant quarantine is in place throughout portions of Los Angeles, Orange, Riverside, San Bernardino and San Diego counties. To further limit the spread of the pest that can carry HLB, there are additional quarantines in place that make it illegal to bring citrus fruit or plant material into California from other states or countries.
We’ve selected a few of the latest new geographic, host and species records for plant pests and diseases from CAB Abstracts. Records this month include two new species of Plasmopara affecting wild grapes in the USA and the first report of rust disease on Potentilla indica caused by Phragmidium duchesneae in Japan.
To view all search results for new geographic, host and species records for plant pests and diseases, click here or to view results by your location click here.
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We’ve selected a few of the latest new geographic, host and species records for plant pests and diseases from CAB Abstracts. Records this month include the first report of Pestalotiopsis biciliata causing dieback on Quercus coccifera and Pistacia lentiscus in Tunisia and the first report of Sida leaf curl virus and associated betasatellite from tobacco.
To view all search results for new geographic, host and species records for plant pests and diseases, click here or to view results by your location click here.
If there’s another new record you’d like to highlight, please post a comment.
Source: Reliefweb, FAO report [summ. Mod.DHA, edited] https://reliefweb.int/report/ecuador/giews-country-brief-ecuador-15-june-2022 In Ecuador, harvesting of the 2022 main season maize crops is ongoing under favourable weather conditions. Yields are expected to be below average due to low precipitation in key producing provinces. In addition, a fungal disease called tar spot (mancha de asfalto) reportedly affected maize crops, with negative effects on yields. — Communicated by: ProMED [Tar spot of maize has been known to lead to serious yield losses of up to 75% in Central and South America. It is considered to be a disease complex involving the synergistic association of at least 3 fungal species: _Phyllachora maydis_, _Microdochium maydis_ (previously _Monographella maydis_) and _Coniothyrium phyllachorae_.
Of these, _P. maydis_ is usually the 1st to cause leaf lesions. While _M. maydis_ is a common benign saprophyte on leaf surfaces, it becomes highly virulent only in association with _P. maydis_ and forms necrotic rings around the _P. maydis_ lesions. _C. phyllachorae_ may be a hyperparasite of the other 2, but its role is not fully understood yet. Leaf lesions may coalesce, causing blight and complete burning of the foliage. In addition, characteristic black shiny spots (“tar spots”) are produced both within lesions and on other leaf areas. Affected ears have fewer kernels which may germinate prematurely on the cob. Weakening of stems may lead to increased lodging. The disease reduces photosynthetic potential and therefore plant vigour.
_P. maydis_ is an obligate parasite; its spores are spread by wind and with infected plant material. It produces a potent toxin killing plant tissue. The disease is favoured by cool, humid conditions. Tar spot management may include fungicide treatments and use of maize varieties with tolerance or low sensitivity to the disease. However, resistance breeding is difficult because of the involvement of multiple pathogens. So far, little is known about the genetics of tar spot resistance.
Texas forage producers are facing high fertilizer prices, but Texas A&M AgriLife Extension Service experts do not expect they will face an early outbreak of fall armyworms.
David Kerns, AgriLife Extension state integrated pest management specialist and professor in the Department of Entomology, said recent weather has not created conditions for the early migration of the devastating pest experienced in 2021.
Populations typically build following large rain events and cooler weather. But Kerns said there is no indication that armyworm populations are building in southern areas of the state following recent weather systems that dropped temperatures and delivered moisture.
Fall armyworms’ name is indicative of their active season, but cool, wet weather can trigger outbreaks, Kern said. Populations of armyworms, which are extremely damaging to forage production, typically begin increasing sometime between July and September.
“Fall armyworms typically build up in southeastern Texas, and the moths move northward throughout the eastern half of the state,” he said. “Last year, with all the spring and summer rains, that buildup occurred earlier than usual, but conditions are much drier this year despite the recent storm fronts.”
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No reports of armyworms so far
Fall armyworms are green with brown or black colorations and can be identified by the white inverted Y on their head. They can grow up to 1 inch in length when mature.
The pest got its name because they appear to march army-like across hay fields, consuming the grass in their path.
Armyworm moths can lay up to 2,000 eggs that hatch in two to three days, according to a 2019 report by Allen Knutson, AgriLife Extension entomologist, retired.
Vanessa Corriher-Olson, AgriLife Extension forage specialist, Overton, said there are four to five generations that move throughout the state per growing season. They typically move north from Mexico and South Texas as temperatures warm in the spring. Generations will push further north into midwestern states, but moths and larvae remain present throughout the state.
Drier, hotter conditions slow their life cycles, Corriher-Olson said. Moths lay fewer eggs and caterpillar growth is slowed. But rainfall and cooler temperatures can trigger major infestations when local populations, new hatches and migrating moths descend on areas with quality food sources.
Corriher-Olson said continued drier conditions overall in southern parts of the state are likely to curb any early issues forage producers may have experienced in 2021.
“I have not received any reports or phone calls, and that tells me populations in areas where the armyworm migration begins have not reached any level of concern,” she said.
No problem until there is a problem
Corriher-Olson said producers typically react to fall armyworm outbreaks when they occur, which has led to product availability issues during the pandemic. She noted, however, that she had not received any reports about insecticide shortages to date.
“Many producers take a reactionary approach to armyworms because of the expense,” she said. “Some producers may have products on hand that are left over from last year, but most are going to be monitoring the situation to their south and plan accordingly.”
Kerns said conditions may not be shaping up for armyworms at this point in the forage production season, but producers with Sudan grass, hay grazer and other forages related to sorghum should be on the lookout for sorghum aphids, also known as sugarcane aphids.
While armyworms prefer wetter, cooler weather, sorghum aphids prefer hot, dry conditions, he said. There have been reports of the aphids in grain sorghum fields in South Texas.
Aphids feed on leaves and leave a sap that further damages the plant, and major infestations can greatly impact forage yields.
Corriher-Olson said forage pests like fall armyworms and aphids are always a threat to producers’ bottom lines, but yield losses could magnify their impact on budgets due to higher input costs, especially fertilizer applications.
Many forage producers are forgoing or reducing fertilizer applications, which could impact where infestations build, she said. Fall armyworms will settle on any green pasture, but they prefer lush, fertilized forages.
“Fertilized fields are more at risk to be damaged,” she said. “So, when it comes to armyworms, we don’t want to see a producer spend money to produce quality forage and have armyworms destroy it.”
AgriLife Extension district reporters compiled the following summaries:
The 12 Texas A&M AgriLife Extension Districts
ROLLING PLAINS
Rainfall amounts were from 1.5-3 inches. The rains helped the soil moisture profile, but more rain was needed to fill stock tanks. There was very little green grass in pastures. Wheat harvest continued in the little bit of wheat worth combining. Yield reports ranged from 3-25 bushels per acre. Supplemental hay feeding of cattle continued.
COASTAL BEND
Southern parts of the area reported showers that produced trace amounts to 2 inches of rain. Crops with irrigation looked good, but dryland producers were concerned about crop losses. Cotton benefitted the most from rain, but more moisture will be needed to see good yields. Corn and grain sorghum were drying down and any moisture would probably only help with the kernel weight. Rangeland and pastures showed a slight color change with rain, but not much growth occurred, and conditions remained poor to fair. Livestock were still in a decline and receiving supplemental feed. Hay supplies were dwindling. More cattle producers were weaning early and culling out poor producing cows. Cattle market prices remained high.
EAST
Recent rains helped, but soils dried quickly. Pasture and rangeland conditions were fair. Subsoil and topsoil conditions were short to adequate. Hay production continued. Yields were much lower than normal as producers reduced fertilizer applications due to higher input costs. Harrison County reported problematic fly populations. Livestock were in fair to good condition.
SOUTH PLAINS
Producers received another significant rainfall shower this week across the county. Rainfall totals ranged from 0.5 inches to 2 inches. Some large hail was also mixed with the heavier rain. Cooler temperatures helped conditions. Rain was in the forecast. Cotton planting was in full swing with about 80% of acres planted so far. More rain will be needed for decent cotton, corn and sorghum yields. Pumpkin farmers started planting. Cattle were being supplementally fed. The recent rainfall helped pastures a little.
PANHANDLE
Soil moisture conditions were very short to short. Recent rains helped irrigated crops like wheat, corn and cotton some. Earlier planted corn was up and growing, but some silage corn plantings were still on hold. Cotton was already planted or going in, but producers were not optimistic about yields. Rangeland and pasture conditions improved, but much more rain will be needed to sustain a green-up. Overall, rangeland and pasture conditions remained poor, and crop conditions were poor to fair.
NORTH
Soil moisture ranged from adequate to short. Warmer temperatures and higher wind speeds dried up soil moisture. Corn, cotton and soybeans were doing well. Early planted corn was tasseling. The wheat harvest began, and fields looked good. No widespread insect or disease pressure was reported. Pasture and rangeland conditions were fair to good and had improved slightly following recent rainfall. The first hay harvests of Bermuda grass, ryegrass, Bahia grass or oats were cut and rolled without issue this year. This was the first early forage harvest in the past few years not delayed by rainfall or wet conditions. Cattle were in good to excellent condition. Horn and stable flies were increasing significantly, and horseflies and deerflies were worsening. Spring calves appeared to be gaining well. Supplemental feeding continued for livestock and wildlife, and forage quality looked poor. Rainfall will be necessary for continued forage production. Some hay producers were considering transitioning pastures to native forage production due to lack of rain and increased fertilizer costs.
FAR WEST
Weather was variable. A cold front dropped temperatures into the 40s and brought rainfall, hail and dust storms that took visibility to zero, but temperatures quickly returned to the 90s. A very narrow band of storms left trace amounts of rain up to 1.5 inches. Hail damage to farm equipment, barns, trees and residences was severe. Emerged cotton was hailed out. Cotton, especially Pima fields, looked good in other areas. Corn continued to make progress, but heat was starting to take its toll. Melons looked good and were making good progress. Pecan trees were coming along nicely and set a good crop. Some pecan nut casebearer pressure was reported. Alfalfa looked decent. Pastures remained completely bare. Cattle conditions continued to worsen, and some ranchers completed weaning.
WEST CENTRAL
Thunderstorms delivered from 1.5-3 inches of rainfall to most areas. Forages perked up with the moisture, but temperatures in the 90s and windy days could impact moisture retention. Some farmers harvested wheat last week, but yields were poor. Cotton outlooks were looking slim as well. Herd liquidation was slowly happening. Some producers with hay chose to feed through drought, but many were selling off their herds. An ongoing wildfire near Abilene was under control, but not before it burned 10,900 acres.
SOUTHEAST
Heavy rains helped soil moisture levels. Some hay was cut, and rice was fertilized. Forages were growing and producers in several areas cut their first hay crop with no pests reported. Rains slowed crop planting in some areas. Rice planting was not complete. Some areas remained dry and reported declining pasture, rangeland and crop conditions. Rangeland and pastures ranged from very poor to excellent condition. Soil moisture levels were short to surplus.
SOUTHWEST
Some areas received 0.75-3 inches of rain. The rainfall helped alleviate the drought stress for crops that survived to this point. Hot temperatures persisted and pastures looked overgrazed. Wheat and oat harvests were complete with below-average yields reported. Irrigated corn looked good, and cotton was doing well. Producers eased up on supplemental feeding due to the recent rains, but pasture conditions continued to decline in drier areas. Mesquite spraying was underway. Diet supplementation continued for livestock and wildlife, and forage production looked poor. Irrigated hay fields were in good condition.
SOUTH
Moisture levels in northern areas were very short, while eastern and western areas reported short to adequate soil moisture. Southern areas reported adequate to surplus moisture. Most areas reported rainfall with amounts ranging from 0.3-8 inches. Pastures and rangelands responded well to the moisture. Livestock conditions were improving and producers were decreasing supplemental feed. Cattle prices remained strong. Cattle producers in drier areas continued to provide supplemental feed to maintain body condition scores. Producers who planted hay grazer before the rains were expecting good growth. Significant rain missed croplands in northern parts of the district. Row crops and forages in areas that received rain were expected to improve significantly. Irrigated crops like watermelons, cantaloupes and Bermuda grass looked good. Cotton was expected to respond well to the moisture. Flooding and hail damaged some crops. Hail damaged around 5,000 acres of grain, sesame, sunflowers, watermelons and corn. Sorghum aphid pressure increased, and weeds were becoming an issue as fields were too wet to spray.
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